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Old-growth forests are forests identified not by one universal age cutoff, but by a combination of age, structure, species and ecological processes. Large trees, layered canopies, standing dead trees and fallen wood create habitat and support carbon storage, watershed functions, and cultural values. They are important because these interdependent qualities develop over long periods and cannot be quickly recreated.
What makes a forest old growth?
Old growth is best understood through a forest’s characteristics and history together, rather than a single number of years. The U.S. Forest Service’s 1994 generic definition described old-growth ecosystems as “ecosystems distinguished by old trees and related structural attributes.” It identified tree size, large dead woody material, canopy layers, species composition and ecosystem function as possible distinguishing features. U.S. Forest Service, 1994; National Park Service.
Depending on the forest type, signs can include:
- Large old trees and a canopy with multiple layers.
- Openings in the canopy where younger trees and other understory plants grow.
- Standing dead trees, called snags, and fallen, decomposing wood.
- A mix of species and ecological processes characteristic of that forest.
These features vary among ecosystems. A forest’s natural growth rate and disturbance patterns affect what old growth looks like and how it is identified. The 2023 review by Gray and colleagues describes defining and inventorying mature and old-growth forests as a “wicked problem” involving science, values and management; it also notes that fine-scale mapping can carry substantial error. Local criteria, consistent measurement and social and traditional knowledge all matter. Gray et al., 2023.
Why there is no worldwide age cutoff
Forests develop at different rates and face different natural disturbances, so one age threshold cannot identify old growth everywhere. British Columbia, for example, typically uses 250 years for wet coastal and interior wet-belt regions, and usually 140 years for dry interior forests, where fire and insect disturbances occur more frequently. These are B.C. regional criteria, not a global rule. Province of British Columbia.
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Old growth and primary forest are related, not interchangeable
In the FAO-hosted definitions, primary forest can be any age if it developed through natural processes. Old-growth forest refers to accumulated structures and species characteristic of old primary forest, and can occur in either primary or secondary forest. The terms therefore overlap, but they describe different things: primary forest emphasizes how a forest developed, while old growth emphasizes age-related characteristics. Neither term should be taken to mean that a forest has never been influenced or stewarded by people. FAO, Second Expert Meeting on Harmonizing Forest-Related Definitions for Use by Various Stakeholders.
Why are old-growth forests important?
They provide distinctive habitat
Large trees, varied canopy layers, understory growth and dead wood create different places for plants and animals to live. Some species depend on particular conditions found in old forests, so losing those structures can affect habitat even if trees remain in the area. National Park Service; Province of British Columbia.
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They store carbon
Forests remove carbon dioxide and store carbon in living and dead organic matter above and below ground. Old-growth forests are one part of that picture; their importance is not reducible to a single carbon-uptake rate, which is not the same for every forest. In a 2022 statement, then-U.S. Bureau of Land Management director Tracy Stone-Manning said: “Old-growth and mature forests are critical to ensuring resilience in our forests in the face of climate change, and they play a key role in storing carbon.” National Park Service.
They help sustain water and other ecosystem functions
Government background material identifies functions that include intercepting and storing water, protecting watersheds, filtering water and regulating erosion. These are connected to how a forest’s living and decomposing components interact with its surroundings. Province of British Columbia; National Park Service.
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They carry cultural and community value
Indigenous peoples have longstanding cultural and spiritual relationships with forests. Forests may also support practices and provide food, medicines and other traditional resources. Those relationships and values differ among peoples and communities; they should not be treated as identical or separate from the histories of forest stewardship. Province of British Columbia; National Park Service.
Why are old-growth forests difficult to replace?
The structures and ecological relationships associated with old growth take a long time to develop. British Columbia describes the return of old growth as taking at least two to three human lifespans—140 to 250 years—and says ancient forest conditions take longer still. That is a provincial description, not a universal recovery timetable. Planting trees can establish new forest, but it does not quickly recreate old-growth structure, habitat or cultural value. Province of British Columbia.
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How much old-growth forest has been counted in the United States?
A National Park Service account of a joint U.S. Bureau of Land Management and U.S. Forest Service inventory reported these figures for agency-managed lands, based on the agencies’ 2023 report:
| Forest category | Reported area | Share of forests managed by the two agencies |
|---|---|---|
| Old-growth forest | 32.7 million acres | About 18% |
| Mature forest | 80.1 million acres | About 45% |
These figures concern lands managed by the two federal agencies; they are not a comprehensive estimate of all old-growth forest in the United States. Mature and old-growth are distinct categories, not interchangeable labels. The U.S. Forest Service’s Forest Inventory and Analysis network, described in 2023, draws on more than 140,000 forested plots as a consistent field-data source for U.S. forests. National Park Service; U.S. Forest Service, Forest Inventory and Analysis.
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How definitions affect protection
Definitions determine which forests inventories count and which places management rules protect. Approaches and legal protections vary by jurisdiction. In 2023, the European Commission published guidance for identifying, mapping, monitoring and strictly protecting remaining EU primary and old-growth forests; that guidance applies to the European Union, not as a global standard. European Commission, March 21, 2023.
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