Marine fish are harvested from the wild with several fundamentally different approaches: nets that are towed or used to surround fish, nets that entangle fish, lines carrying hooks, baited traps, seabed-collection gear, and highly selective methods such as harpooning. The method used depends on the target species, its depth and behavior, the seabed, the scale of the fishery, and local regulations.
Marine fish are harvested from the wild with several fundamentally different approaches: nets that are towed or used to surround fish, nets that entangle fish, lines carrying hooks, baited traps, seabed-collection gear, and highly selective methods such as harpooning. The method used depends on the target species, its depth and behavior, the seabed, the scale of the fishery, and local regulations.
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This article concerns wild marine capture fisheries—catching fish in oceans, coastal waters, and estuaries—not aquaculture, in which aquatic animals are bred, reared, and harvested in natural or human-made facilities. “Fishing method” and “fishing gear” overlap: a method describes how fish are captured, while gear is the physical equipment used. For example, “trawling” is the towing method, while a bottom trawl or midwater trawl is a particular gear configuration. [CIT-001][CIT-002]
1. Trawling: towing a net through the water
A trawl is a net pulled through the water by one or more vessels. Floats help keep the upper part of the net open, while weights and other components determine how the lower part travels. Trawls are used to catch fish near the seabed, throughout the water column, and sometimes shrimp or other bottom-associated animals. Their major advantage is volume: a trawl can cover a substantial area and bring large quantities of fish aboard efficiently. [CIT-004]
Bottom trawls
Bottom trawls are designed to herd and capture demersal fish—species that live on or close to the ocean floor. Depending on the design, parts of the gear may contact the seabed. This creates a potential habitat concern in sensitive areas, in addition to the general risk of catching non-target animals.
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Midwater trawls are towed within the water column rather than directly along the bottom. They are commonly used for schooling pelagic fish. Because they can operate away from the seabed, they may reduce direct bottom contact compared with bottom trawls, but they are not automatically impact-free: bycatch depends on the species present, net design, tow location, and fishing practices. [CIT-002][CIT-005]
Fisheries may reduce trawl impacts with larger or specially designed mesh, bycatch-reduction devices, turtle-excluder devices, area closures, seasonal restrictions, and rules governing where and how the gear can be towed. The effectiveness of these measures is fishery-specific. [CIT-002][CIT-006]
2. Seining: surrounding or herding fish with a net
Seines capture fish by surrounding an area of water or herding fish into a net. Unlike a trawl, a seine is not primarily defined by towing the net continuously along the bottom or through the water column.
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Purse seines
A purse seine is deployed around a school, often near the surface. Once the net surrounds the fish, a purse line is pulled tight to close the bottom, much like drawing a cord around the opening of a bag. The catch is then concentrated and brought aboard. Purse seines are especially important for schooling pelagic species, including tuna and small pelagic fish. [CIT-007][CIT-008]
Purse-seine impacts depend heavily on where and how the net is deployed. A set on a free-swimming target school may have a different bycatch profile from a set around fish gathered near a fish-aggregating device. Undersized fish and non-target animals can be captured in either situation, so net design, school behavior, deployment location, and bycatch controls all matter. [CIT-007][CIT-010]
Beach, Danish, and Scottish seines
A beach seine is deployed from shore and hauled toward the beach. Danish and Scottish seines use lines and a net to herd fish before the gear is retrieved. These methods vary in their scale and operation, but they share the basic principle of surrounding or concentrating fish rather than catching them one at a time. NOAA describes seine fishing generally as surrounding an area of water with a net to capture fish. [CIT-009]
A fishing net sold for recreational or educational use is not a substitute for a commercial purse seine, trawl, or gillnet. Commercial nets are specialized systems whose legality, dimensions, construction, and use are governed by local fishery rules.
3. Gillnetting: catching fish in a wall of mesh
A gillnet is a vertical wall of netting, commonly made from nylon. Its mesh is chosen so that a fish’s head can enter but its body cannot pass through easily. When the fish tries to withdraw, the mesh catches around the gill covers—hence the name “gillnet.” Mesh size can help target particular fish sizes, although it does not guarantee that only the intended species will be caught. [CIT-011]
- Set gillnets are anchored or fixed in place.
- Drift gillnets remain suspended at a chosen depth and move with currents.
Gillnets can be relatively simple to deploy and are used in coastal and offshore fisheries. Their principal conservation concern is incidental entanglement. Marine mammals, seabirds, sea turtles, and non-target fish may become caught in the mesh, sometimes even when the target fishery is carefully managed.
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Possible mitigation measures include changing mesh size or net slack, altering the fishing depth, using acoustic pingers where appropriate, adding weak links, and applying seasonal or area closures. These measures are not universal solutions: their availability, legality, and effectiveness vary by fishery. [CIT-011][CIT-012]
4. Longlining: setting many baited hooks on one line
Longlines consist of a mainline carrying numerous branch lines, or gangions, each fitted with a baited hook. A set can extend for many miles in some fisheries and may remain in the water for hours before the vessel retrieves it. [CIT-013]
Pelagic longlines
Pelagic longlines are suspended at selected depths in the water column. They commonly target tuna, swordfish, and billfish—valuable species that may be widely dispersed and difficult to capture efficiently with a surrounding net.
Bottom longlines
Bottom longlines are configured to fish near the seabed, where they may target groundfish. They generally have less continuous seabed contact than a bottom trawl, but they can still interact with bottom habitats and non-target animals.
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Longline bycatch can include sea turtles, seabirds, marine mammals, and non-target fish. Measures used in some fisheries include circle hooks, suitable bait, shorter soak times, weighted lines, bird-scaring devices, and procedures for safely releasing animals. A circle hook or other accessory should not be treated as a universal guarantee of safe fishing; requirements and results vary according to the fishery, target species, hook configuration, bait, depth, and handling practices. [CIT-013][CIT-014]
5. Hook-and-line fishing: catching individual fish
Hook-and-line is a broad category that includes handlines, rod-and-reel gear, setlines, jigs, troll lines, and pole-and-line fishing. Bait or an artificial lure attracts a fish, which is caught when it bites or strikes the hook. [CIT-001][CIT-015]
- Trolling: baited lines or lures are towed behind a moving vessel, often for active pelagic fish.
- Jigging: a weighted lure is moved through the water to imitate prey.
- Pole-and-line fishing: individual lines and poles are used in targeted fisheries for some schooling species.
- Handlining and rod-and-reel fishing: an angler or fisher manages one or more lines directly rather than deploying a large net.
Because hooks can be handled individually, hook-and-line fishing often offers a high degree of selectivity. Fishers may be able to release unwanted catch, choose a hook or bait suited to a target species, and avoid some areas or depths. However, “selective” does not mean impact-free. A released fish may die from injury or exhaustion, and hooks can still catch protected species. Survival depends on hook type, bait, fishing depth, handling, exposure time, and the skill and practices of the fishing operation. [CIT-012][CIT-013]
6. Pots and traps: using a baited enclosure
Pots and traps are three-dimensional enclosures made from wire, wood, or other rigid materials. Bait attracts fish or other animals inside, where escape is difficult until the gear is hauled. Pots may be set individually or in connected strings, with ropes and surface buoys marking their location. [CIT-016]
For marine fish, traps may be used for species such as scup, black sea bass, and eels. Similar equipment is also widely used to catch crabs, lobsters, whelks, and other bottom-dwelling animals. Escape panels and culling rings can allow undersized animals to leave before the pot is retrieved. [CIT-016]
Pots are not free of environmental risks. Vertical buoy lines and groundlines can entangle whales and sea turtles. Lost or abandoned gear can continue to catch animals—a phenomenon known as ghost fishing—unless it degrades, opens, or incorporates effective escape features. Gear marking, retrieval programs, biodegradable escape panels, and rules about line configuration are among the measures used in some fisheries. [CIT-016][CIT-017]
7. Dredging and related seabed collection
A dredge is a rigid or semi-rigid device pulled or dragged along the seabed. Dredges are more commonly associated with shellfish than with finfish, so they are best treated as a related seabed-harvesting method rather than one of the dominant ways of catching open-water marine fish.
Because dredges interact directly with the bottom, their effects can include seabed disturbance and incidental capture of non-target organisms. The scale of those effects varies with dredge design, towing method, substrate, target species, fishing intensity, and local regulation. Fisheries-management classifications commonly include dredges alongside trawls, seines, gillnets, longlines, pots, and traps. [CIT-002][CIT-018]
8. Harpooning and other individual-capture methods
Harpooning uses a pointed dart or iron attached to a line. The implement may be propelled by hand or with a manually operated pole or stick, depending on the gear definition and regional practice. It is used when an individual target fish can be seen or otherwise identified, making it highly selective but relatively low-volume compared with net-based fishing. [CIT-019]
Related methods include hand capture, spearfishing, and specialized buoy or stick gear used in particular regional fisheries. These approaches are important for illustrating the full range of marine fishing: at one end are industrial systems designed to capture large schools or substantial areas, and at the other are methods that select one visible fish at a time. Their environmental effects still depend on species, location, season, equipment, and local rules. [CIT-002][CIT-019]
How the major methods compare
| Method | Basic mechanism | Typical strength | Main concern |
|---|---|---|---|
| Trawl | A net is towed through the bottom or midwater. | High-volume capture over an area. | Bycatch; seabed impacts where bottom-contact gear is used. |
| Purse seine and other seines | Fish are surrounded or herded with a net. | Efficient capture of schooling fish. | Bycatch, especially around concentrated schools or devices. |
| Gillnet | Fish become caught in a wall of mesh. | Simple deployment and size selectivity through mesh choice. | Entanglement of protected species and non-target fish. |
| Longline | Many baited hooks are attached to a mainline. | Targets dispersed, high-value fish. | Hooking or entanglement of turtles, seabirds, mammals, and non-target fish. |
| Hook-and-line | Individual baited hooks or lures attract fish. | High potential selectivity. | Injury or mortality of released catch and protected-species interactions. |
| Pots and traps | Fish enter a baited enclosure. | Can retain live catch and permit some escape features. | Entanglement and lost-gear or ghost-fishing risks. |
| Dredge | A collection device is pulled along the seabed. | Effective for bottom-associated organisms. | Seabed disturbance and incidental catch. |
| Harpoon | An individual fish is struck with a dart. | Very selective capture. | Limited scale and dependence on visibility and target behavior. |
Which fishing method is most sustainable?
There is no universally best method. A gear label alone cannot establish whether a fishery is sustainable or harmful. The relevant evaluation must combine at least these factors:
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- Stock condition: Is the target population being harvested within scientifically advised limits?
- Bycatch: Which non-target fish, seabirds, marine mammals, turtles, or other animals are caught, and do they survive release?
- Habitat sensitivity: Does the gear contact coral, seagrass, muddy sediment, rocky habitat, or another vulnerable seabed?
- Gear configuration: What are the mesh size, hook type, line arrangement, escape features, and other specifications?
- Fishing behavior: How long does gear soak, how often is it checked, and how is unwanted catch handled?
- Management: Are there effective size limits, quotas, monitoring, protected areas, seasonal closures, gear restrictions, and lost-gear rules?
For example, a midwater trawl may avoid direct seabed contact but still catch unwanted pelagic animals. A hook-and-line fishery may be highly targeted but still cause mortality among released fish. A pot may allow live release of undersized catch but create a ghost-fishing hazard if it is lost. Even comparisons between “small-scale” and “large-scale” fishing require care: neither scale is automatically sustainable or impact-free.
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In fisheries management, bycatch means non-target catch or interactions with protected species. It is broader than discards: bycatch may be retained or released, and released animals may be alive, injured, or dead. Gear modifications, changes in fishing practices, and area or seasonal closures are among the tools used to reduce incidental capture. Their success must be assessed in the specific fishery where they are applied. [CIT-001][CIT-002][CIT-006][CIT-012] Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.
The practical answer in one sentence
Marine fish are mainly harvested by towed nets such as bottom and midwater trawls, encircling nets such as purse seines, entangling nets such as gillnets, hook systems such as longlines and handlines, and baited traps; dredges and individual methods such as harpoons complete the major gear picture. The consequences depend on how each method is configured and managed in its particular fishery.
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Frequently Asked Questions
What is the difference between trawling and seining?
Trawling uses a net that is towed through the water, while seining surrounds or herds fish with a net. Bottom trawls are designed to operate near the seabed; purse seines typically surround schooling fish, often near the surface.
Is hook-and-line fishing impact-free?
Not necessarily. Hook-and-line fishing can be selective, but hooks may still catch protected species, and released fish can die from injury or stress. The result depends on hook and bait choice, depth, handling, and local fishing practices.
How do gillnets catch fish?
Gillnets catch fish when their gill covers become caught in mesh. Their main concern is incidental entanglement of non-target fish, seabirds, sea turtles, and marine mammals.
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What are the risks of fishing pots and traps?
Pots and traps can include escape panels or culling rings that let undersized animals leave. However, lost pots may continue catching animals, an effect called ghost fishing, and buoy lines can entangle marine wildlife.
The Bottom Line
The major methods are trawling, seining, gillnetting, longlining, hook-and-line fishing, trapping, dredging, and highly selective individual capture such as harpooning. None is automatically sustainable or destructive in every situation: target species, stock status, bycatch controls, habitat, gear design, and local management all determine the real-world impact.
Quick Recap
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